Abstract
Active-shooter events represent extreme stressors that can trigger significant physiological stress responses. Virtual reality (VR) enables these threats to be simulated safely and consistently, allowing investigation of stress biomarker patterns over time. PURPOSE: This preliminary study examined differences in physiological and subjective stress responses during acute virtual reality (VR) training between target practice (TP) and active shooter (AS) groups, to determine whether training mode influences physiological and subjective stress biomarkers. METHODS: Thirty participants were randomly assigned to a control (TP) or experimental (AS) group and completed a high-stress VR simulation. The TP group was instructed to shoot targets that appeared in the VR simulation. The AS group acted as law enforcement officers responding to an active shooter scene involving victims and an active shooter. During the trial, researchers administered the state anxiety inventory (SAI) questionnaire, recorded participants heartrate (HR), and collected saliva samples at four time points: baseline, immediately pre-VR, immediately post-VR, and 20 min post-VR (p < 0.05). Saliva samples were later analyzed for the stress biomarkers salivary alpha-amylase (sAA) and secretory immunoglobulin A (SIgA). RESULTS: No treatment x time interaction was found for any variable (p > 0.05). Significant time effects were observed for sAA, SIgA, HR and SAI (p < 0.05). Post hoc analysis indicated salivary stress biomarkers sAA and SIgA were significantly higher immediately post VR compared to 20 min post VR (p < 0.05). An increase was noted from immediately pre to immediately post VR for both variables but only approached significance (p = 0.05). sAA concentrations were significantly higher immediately post VR compared to baseline (p = 0.004). A treatment effect was noted for sAA with higher concentrations noted in the AS condition compared to the TP condition (p < 0.001). HR was higher immediately post VR compared to all other timepoints (p < 0.001). SAI values were significantly higher immediately post VR compared to baseline and 20 min post VR (both groups). CONCLUSION: Acute participation in both VR based TP and AS conditions demonstrated significant increases in physiological and subjective stress and anxiety markers: sAA, SIgA, HR and SAI. Future research should examine repeated sessions in these training scenarios, including a larger sample size to further examine the potential implication of these findings.
Recommended Citation
Gaitan, Annelise N.; DeArman, Ashlyn S.; Shakya, Lipika; Martaindale, Hunter; and McAllister, Matthew J.
(2026)
"Comparing the Effects of Acute Participation in Target Practice Versus Active Shooter Virtual Reality Training on Stress Biomarkers,"
International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings: Vol. 2:
Iss.
18, Article 189.
Available at:
https://digitalcommons.wku.edu/ijesab/vol2/iss18/189